Development of Translation Studies and Approaches

Development of variant Studies and ApproachesIntroductionThe present monograph is an strain to demonstrate the fact that version Studies is non a mere appendage of linguistics but an extensive discipline with many branches and truly signifi smoket results. In the next pages, at that place entrust be four main separate the prime(prenominal) set about depart focus on the development of supplanting studies from writings on translation to translation studies as an academic discipline. The second activate will deal mainly with the Muslim horti elaboration and its principles, and will try to give an answer to the question Is the Islamic market-gardening translatable? The third part will be an introduction to the different types of culture and will show their different levels of untranslatability. The same part will likewise focus on the adapters skills introducing them as major factors leading to a better target text. As a final step, the fourth and last part will link tr anslation to the Islamic culture, in an attempt to highlight the untranslatability of the Islamic culture in the al-Quranic discourse, especially the material side of it, and also to state the comments of Muslim scholars on the translations of the holy Quran. interpreting is a assist establish on the theory that it is possible to abstract the essence of a text from its plaster bandages and reproduce that meaning with the very different forms of a second quarrel.Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical social structure, communication situation, and pagan context of the source nomenclature text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning victimisation the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. (Larson l998, p. 3)In practice, t present is considerable variation in the types of translations produced by translators. few translators break do wn merely in two languages and are competent in both, while former(a)(a)s work from their first language to their second language, and still early(a)s from their second language to their first language. Depending on these matters of language proficiency, the procedures utilize will vary from project to project.On the development of translation studiesI see translation as an attempt to produce a text so transparent that it does not seem to be retelld. A good translation is like a pane of glass, you only notice that its there when there are little imperfections- scratches, bubbles. Ideally, there shouldnt be any. It should never call attention to itself.IntroductionFirst, it has to be clearly asserted that there exist many traditions c at oncerning the first writings on translation, and as it is impossible to mention all of them, the focus will be about Europe and the Arab world. This chapter deals with the result of the earliest writings on translation and also the birth of the parvenu discipline translation studies in the last few decades.Writings on Translation EuropeAmong the first writings on translation were Ciceros1 Libellus de optimo genere oratorun, Horaces2 Ars poetica of circa and the translation of the Bible as a practical side. For this discernment, Europeans believe that translation started with the Romans and the Greeks, but it is very heavy to bear in mind that translation might commit started so long before. And there are proofs for that in many move of the world. Hung and Pollard (1998366) claim that there were government officials with responsibility for translation in China 9th century BC. But Cicero and Horace gave a great deal importance to the problems of translation, produced different theories and highly influenced the next generation of translators. It is they who initiated the property between record to word and sense for sense translation, which retains its significance till now3. It is a fact today that India, china, I raq and Spain have in many shipway cause the European culture. In the ninth and tenth century in Baghdad the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece were translated into Arabic, with the emergence of the famous library called beitu al hikma established by the Abbasside khalifa Al Mamoon. Those translated into Arabic books which transmit the Greek Culture, including religions, mythology and philosophy, open up to Europe through Spain which was at that time under Muslim governance. Later on, with the civilise of Toledo, translations were made from Arabic to Latin and helped in the European Renaissance.Another grievous tradition that was influential in Europe is Bible translation. It is believed that with the translation of Bible started the first thoughts about translation theory. It was very classic, for Bible translators, at that time, to respect the sacred scripts, and at the same time to guarantee that the target text would be apprehensible after translation. T he first translator to deal the translation of the Bible into English is John Wycliffite who believed that every whizz in the world should have access to the word of God in wholenesss language. After that came the translation made by forty-seven scholars and translators, eight years after the accession of King James to the English throne4, which is the principle version follow in many Christian countries.The modern period of Bible translation started by the revisions of the Bible, and new translations have been made. Nida (199827-28) says that Bible translators (in the modern period) often work in teams of three to five full time translators.One notices that Bible translators in the modern period made great efforts to make the target text as clear and understandable as possible, without neglecting the addition of the necessary priming coat information using the footnote system and other techniques in order to respect the maestro text.The Arab WorldThe early translations in the Arab world date back to the period of Syrians. They translated into Arabic a large heritage. Syrians were highly influenced by the Greek translations. Syrians translations were more actual and close to the original claims Ayad (1993168, qtd by Addidaoui, 2000)5. According to Addidaoui, Jarjas was one of the best Syrian translators his famous Syrian translation of Aristotles book In The World was very faithful and close to the original.In addition to that, the coming of Islam was very significant to the development of translation in the Arab world Prophet Mohammed peace be upon him tried to spread Islam through different means. One of those means was communication he communicated with Jews, Romans and others, and that is what pushed him to encourage the learning of others languages and to look for translators to help in communication. At that period of time, Prophet Mohammed change letters with kings of Persia, Syria, Jews and Rome, and Zaid Ibn Tabet was the Prophets translator. The history of translation in the Arab world highlighted also the name of Al Jahid one of the important theorists in translation. The theories of Al Jahid are still used today by many professional Arab translators. Al Jahid (196975) says the translator should know the structure of the speech, habits of the people and their ways of judgment each other.6 In addition to the structure and the habits, Al Jahid talked also about the significance of re-translating and put a wide position of theories in his two books Al-Hayawan (1969) and Al-Bayan WA Attabyyin (1968).In short, the history of translation in the Arab world knew many changes, and became very rich in theories. New theorists appeared in each era with new perceptions and new ways of analyzing. Translation in the Arab world, today, started to develop, and new fields of research in translation appear each year, especially with the efforts of the Arabic Academia in Translation studies.Translation Studies An academic DisciplineTran slation studies is an academic discipline which concerns itself with the study of translation7 the term today is tacit to refer to the study of the academic discipline at large, including non literary translation, interpretation, pedagogy and other issues.As an academic discipline, translation studies is just a few decades old. Starting from 1950, scholars and experts were interested in forming coherent theories and conducting research on translation, but it is also avowedly that not so such(prenominal) had been done within the framework of this new discipline, and there are still issues to be analyzed and discussed. That is because scholars went deeply in relating translation studies to other disciplines such as psychology, anthropology and, very recently, cultural studies.One has now to acknowledge the fact that translation studies as a discipline found its place among other academic disciplines and has become independent.Thanks to the Dutch scholar James S. Holmes, translation studies is defined as a discipline being concerned with the complex problems agglomerate round the phenomenon of translating and translations (Holmes 1988b/2000 173)Mona baker, in 1997, say that the new discipline is very rich and it brings together scholars from a variety of more traditional disciplines.8The Islamic cultureIf everybody is expression for it, then nobody is finding it. If we were cultured, we would not be conscious of lacking culture. We would regard it as fewthing natural and would not make so much flimflam about it. And if we knew the real value of this word we would be cultured enough not to give it so much importance.IntroductionIn the present chapter, few(prenominal) points are to be accentuated. First, the notion of culture what is meant by the word culture from different points of view. Second, I will try to relate culture to Islam I will define the Islamic culture and discuss its levels and I will mention some principles of the Islamic culture and hopef ully clarify them. The last point to be dealt with is the translatability of the Islamic culture to what extent is the Islamic culture translatable?The notion of cultureCulture is the customs, ideas, civilization, etc. of a particular society or a group of people9. It is a set of ideas, beliefs and ways of behaving of an organization or a group of people10.The notion of culture is quite very hard to define. The two meanings stated above are the most widespread they define culture as a summary of human gaining in its interaction with its physical and social environs and religious sources11.It is extremely necessary to watch over in mind that there are some dominant cultures, may be for the reason that they are powerful, and as a result influential.Translation, involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group, entails a process of cultural de-coding, re-coding and en-coding. As cultures are increas ingly brought into greater contact with one another, multicultural considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree. One is not just transaction with words written in a certain time, space and sociopolitical situation most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that should be taken into account. The process of transfer, i.e., re-coding across cultures, should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis--vis the target culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader.Indeed, correct translation is not word for word substitution from one language into another, but it requires some understanding of the way people love and think. The meaning of a word in a language is derived from its culture and represents the main connection between language and culture.Religion and cultureIt is universally acknowledged that religion represents the very first element in a group of peoples culture which noticeably influences their way of living. For this reason, peoples cultures differ as the religions differ.It is a fact that most of the expressions used, by a group of people, in the language of everyday manner is generally based on religious vocabulary. One may discover the culture of the others only through their speeches, especially those people who keep on being faithful to the religious language. Muslims, for instance represent the most noticeable case for there are many Quranic expressions in Muslims daily life in Moroccan Arabic it is common to say . This expression is derived from the Quran they said pray to your Lord for us, that He may make clear to us what kind it should be. They said pray to your Lord for us, that He may make clear to us what its color should be.12 This expression is used in the Moroccan Arabic to express how difficult it is to do or possess something.The principles of Islamic cultureOne of the dominant cultures today in the whole world is the Islamic culture. This culture has two main aspects the f irst is stable (Sacred Sources) and the second is changing (the interaction with environment).13The Islamic culture, as all other cultures, has principles most of which are shared with other human communitiesRespect of the other.Co-operation with others.Reliance on science and knowledge.Mutual help and support.Disapproval of wrong deeds.These are considered the most important principles of the Islamic culture.The Islamic culture Translatable?The question that can be raised, in this part, is to what extent is the Islamic Culture Translatable?It is a fact that the Islamic culture shares a component part in common with other cultures with different religions. E.g. the word exists in some other languages, the speakers of which also believe that there is one God. As a result, the word Allah is translatable. But there are words and senses which are specific to the Islamic culture, and which will be dealt with in the last part of this paper.This highlights the fact that the legal injury dealing with the religious aspects of a culture are the most difficult, both in understanding the SLT and providing the best comparability in the TLT, Larson (1984180). The second point which is important as well is that sameness cannot exist between two languages, Bassnett (199130), for the reason that the TL reader is not aware of the different aspects of meaning involved.Cultural untranslatability A translation is no translation, he said, unless it will give you the music of a poem along with the words of it. IntroductionModern linguistic studies showed that language is not a mere physiological, but also a cultural phenomenon, and translation is by nature a very important aspect in cross-cultural communication. The role of translation, therefore, is to introduce one culture to another by means of translating. But very often cultural factors become the barrier in translation and result in untranslatability.Types of cultural untranslatabilityAccording to some translation scholars , such as Nida, there exist five distinct types of culture historical culture, geographical and psychological culture, material culture, customs and traditions as well as religious culture.Historical CultureIt refers to the culture settled and formed during a nations development. The historical culture differs from one society to another because the historical development differs as well. This kind of difference impedes intercultural communication. To best illustrate this impediment, Adams apple, which refers to the lump on the front of a mans throat, can never be translated into Chinese except by its literal meaning because this term is originated from a Biblical story.Geographical and psychological cultureDifferent nations geographical and psychological culture is also a main barrier in translation. Because of the different geographical environments and different nations mentalities, the same word will have totally different meanings in two different cultures. East wind in Japa n and English is a vivid practice. Japanese people favor the east wind, for it is always a symbol of spring and warmness while people in Britain dislike the east wind, because the east wind is from the northern part of the European continent, so it always symbolizes coldness and sadness. In Britain the favorite wind is the west wind. That is the reason why word for word translation never works.Also meanings of some colors are different. In English, green is always connected with envy and blue with moon, so there are such expressions green with envy and once in a blue moon. Those expressions cannot be translated into Arabic using the words green and blue. Thus, they are translated as - instead.Material cultureOne should pay much more attention when translating words which reflect the material culture. For example, the word cricket is an important word in the English language, for it is a popular outdoor adventure in Britain, and plays an important role in peoples daily life. The following saying It is as significant as a game of cricket. best illustrates this point. If we want to translate this sentence, we should add some background information for the TL reader considering that playing cricket is not widely spread in other countries.Another example is the term sum technologist. Moroccan readers may feel confused if the term is translated as . While according to its cultural background, this term s inculpate means the butcher, because meat technologist is a euphemism for the butcher in western countries. By using this term, butchers may think highly of their profession.Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture food terms are subject to the widest variety of translation procedures (Newmark, 198897). The terms coming under this category are just complicated due to the foreign elements present. One such case is the reference to the brightly colored ptisseries tunisiennes. Translating according to the French idea of p tisseries would imply using the English cakes or pastries yet in the context of Tunisian culture this hardly seems appropriate, bearing in mind the difference in form of the TL reference. This illustrates the theory developed by Mounin (1963) who underlines the importance of the signification of a lexical item claiming that only if this notion is considered will the translated item fulfill its chromosome mapping correctly. In this case the translation as sweets seems to correspond to the idea of the original signification, even if it is a more abstract translation of the French original, and is therefore more appropriate concerning its function in the TT than a translation of formal equivalence.Another example of material culture includes an eponym, namely bouteilles de Sidi Brahim. In France this low-quality, Algerian wine-colored is widely known and is the traditional drink with North African dishes, therefore widely sold in supermarkets as well as this type of depleted shop. Th is example can be seen as corresponding to the new ideal reader as described by Coulthard, having different cultural knowledge (Coulthard, 199212) as an English-speaking reader would not necessarily know the name of this wine and even less its associations. By using strictly formal equivalence, all meaning would be lost. It would however be possible to neutralize the original term Sidi Brahim by translating as wine or else to introduce a form of componential analysis, translating as cheap, Algerian wine. Sidi Brahim being the area where the wine is produced, it seems appropriate to keep the original term in the TT but it is necessary to add a qualifier, here wine. In this way, although the cultural implications are not as strong as for an initiated French reader, the information is passed on and elucidated by a qualifier. The cultural implications automatically understood by the ST reader, namely the notion of cheap, low-quality wine, are not however conveyed, the emphasis in this c ontext being on the exotic nature of the product as conveyed by Sidi Brahim and not on the low cost.Customs and traditionsThe different customs and traditions in the daily activities around the world reflect the different cultural mentalities. For instance, In China, when people meet each other in the street, they always greet like this where will you go or what will you do. In fact, this kind of greetings is very rude and impolite in western countries, for it is an interference with privacy. Instead, they are translated as hello good morning or how are you. ghostly cultureReligious culture means the culture formed by a nations religious beliefs and common sense. This type of culture usually impedes the transfer of meaning to a TL since different peoples have different religions. The phrase ( ) is an Arabic term God willing or If it is Gods will is a good example. It derives from Islamic scripture, Surat Al Kahf (18)24But only If God wills And remember your Lord when you forgetThis phrase is now used excessively in Moroccan Arabic. Unfortunately, it is often used to ride out events or to avoid giving a definite answer.Levels of Cultural untranslatabilityCatford states that Cultural untranslatability takes place when a relevant situational feature in the SL is absent in the TL. This cultural untranslatability has different levels. The level changes for the reason that some words are completely untranslatable whereas other words are very hard to find equivalence to in the TL. For this specific reason, the translator has to be skillful and experienced. The translator has to be bilingual as well as bicultural in order to have a better TLT.The translators skills an important factorIt is now a common belief that the translators skills play a major role in delivering a good translation. A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features. Massoud (1988)14 sets criteria for a good translation as follow sA good translation is easily understood.A good translation is fluent and smooth.A good translation is idiomatic.A good translation conveys, to some extent, the literary subtleties of the original.A good translation distinguishes between the metaphorical and the literal.A good translation reconstructs the cultural/historical context of the original.A good translation makes overt what is implicit in abbreviations, and in allusions to sayings, songs, and nursery rhymes.A good translation will convey, as much as possible, the meaning of the original text.Enani (19945)15 defines the translator as a writer who formulates ideas in words communicate to readers. The only difference between him and the original writer is that these ideas are the latters. Another difference is that the work of the translator is even more difficult than that of the artist. The artist is supposed to produce directly his/her ideas and emotions in his/her own language however intricate and complicated his/her t houghts are. The translators responsibility is much greater, for s/he has to relive the experiences of a different person, states Antar S. Abdullah16.To conclude, the above analysis shows that translating is an activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 1978 200)17. As this statement implies, translators are permanently faced with the problems of how to treat the cultural aspects in a source text (ST) and of finding the most appropriate technique to successfully convey these aspects in the target language.Translation and the Islamic cultureIndeed, there has come to you light and a clear book from Allah with it (the Quran) Allah guide him who seeks His pleasure into the ways of safety and brings them out of utter darkness into light by his will and guides them to the right path.(Almaidah V 15-16)IntroductionThe Quran, for the Muslim, comprehends the complete code for all human beings to live a good, chaste, abundant and rewarding lif e in obedience to the commandments of Allah. It is the chart of life for every human being, and it is the constitution of the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth. The Quran was an oral text throughout the lifetime of Muhammad. It was also a fluid text. The complete text resided only in the memories of Muhammad and his pursuit. As he added verses and reorganized the text, his followers would rememorize the text in the light of the additions or edits. This means that the Quran was a living text during the lifetime of Muhammad. Certain verses revealed to Muhammad were later repudiated by him as blessed verses revealed not by Gabriel but by Satan. These verses were expunged from the text that so many had memorized.The untranslatability of the QuranBecause the Quran is for every human being, it transcends the boundaries of the Arab world and goes beyond it. The Quran is addressed to all peoples without exception. It carries a universal message to all human beings regardless of their race or col or.It is true in our days that the translation of the Quran represents one of the most important elements in the Quranic studies, mainly, because it is the first book non-Muslims encounter when attempting to well understand Islam.The Quran exists in its original language, i.e., Arabic. Some Muslim scholars agree that the true Quran is in Arabic, in its original wording as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) therefore, it should only be recited in the Arabic language. The translations however are the work of humans. And since these translations subtly change the meaning, they are often called interpretations. For instance, Pickthall (1930) called his translation The Meaning of the Glorious Koran rather than simply The Koran.Part of the miracles of the Quran is said to be based on Ijaz , or Inimitability. Even for infixed Arabic speakers, the Quran is a difficult document. Its archaic language and verse structure are difficult hurdles to cross. People always admitte d their inability to produce something similar to the Quran. And the translations of the Quran are considered, by some scholars, to be one form of trying to produce a similar Book.Translators of the Quran, it is important to note, encounter many difficulties in the process of translation. Those difficulties encountered are due to different reasons.First, some verses in the Quran complement each other, for that reason the translator of the Quran has to go back to the related verses in order to translate one verse this stresses the idea that word for word translation is not to be used, especially in this context. The verse best illustrates this difficulty. This verse has two meanings an internal meaning which is, trading is licit while usury is illicit, and it has also an extraneous meaning the two terms are different they are not the same. This second meaning is not included in the text, but understood when one goes back to the previous verseThe external meaning, it has to be cl ear, is necessary in order to understand and translate a verse of the Quran. And that is the reason why some of the early translators of the Quran fell in ambiguities.The second problem that impedes the translation of the Quran is that some verses may be general the form used in those verses includes everything, but the meaning of the verse is related to another verse which is specific. The verse is considered a vivid example in this case. The reader cannot know the religion of the striver to free. But, if the translator goes back to the verse 92 of Surat AnissThe question of whether or not one should attempt to translate the Quran should be seen, mainly, in the context of translatability in general, instead of always relating it to the Arabic language.The Material Culture of the QuranMaterial culture includes all of the physical objects that people create and give meaning to. Clothing, architectural elements, and handmade carpets would be examples. An object only becomes part of culture after meaning has been given to it. Human beings perceive and understand the material things around them as they have learned to from their culture.In Arabic, there exist many terms that, even if they have their equivalence in other languages, they cannot be easily translated because they have a particular connotative meaning. Larson (1984 132) warns the translator of the problems of the SL connotative meaning. In some verses of the Quran, there is reference to the donkey and the dog. Those two words have a prejudicious connotation in Arabic, but they are neutral when translated into English for instance.The two words, in English, have a different connotative meaning. For example, the word dog is a symbol of loyalty (the dog is the mans best friend), whereas the donkey is considered, in the Islamic culture, a symbol of utter stupidity.Translation of the Quran and the Muslim scholarsBecause the Quran stresses its Arabic nature, some Muslim scholars believe that any translati on cannot be more than an approximate interpretation, intended only as a tool for the study and understanding of the original Arabic text. They argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult. This factor is made more complex by the fact that the usage of words has changed a great deal between classical and modern Arabic. They argue also that the task of translation is not an easy one some native Arab-speakers will confirm that some Quranic passages are difficult to understand even in the original Arabic. As a result, even Quranic verses which seem perfectly clear to native speakers accustomed to modern vocabulary and usage may not represent the original meaning of the verse.The original meaning of a Quranic passage will also be dependent on the historical circumstances of the Prophet Muhammads life and early community in which it originated. For this reason, one finds a detailed historical background in the introduction of any interpretation of the Quran.ConclusionThe four parts discussed in this research project are not to be viewed as complete products, but they need to be polished and enriched further with other examples.The four main parts of this monograph seem to be very distinct, but, at near scrutiny, these parts are so closely linked because they share the same aim which is to highlight the fact that translation, as a field of knowledge, is very rich, and may be related to many other fields.As an interdisciplinary discipline, translation studies borrows much from the different fields of study that support translation. These include comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, terminology, and so forth.The present monograph, being an attempt to relate translation to other fields, tries to bring together translation and Islam in an attempt to show the untranslatable side of the Islamic culture, starting with a definition an